PALENQUE

Palenque is situated in the highland rainforest near the Mexican/Guatemalan border. With a lush canopy of trees rising 200 feet above your head you are immediately struck by the awesome power of the forest´s ability to enchant you, as it must have enchanted the original builders of Palenque. This site dates from the Classic period, peaking at 600 to 700 A.D. It was a place of ceremony and wielded much political power in some surprising ways. The site itself rests on grassy grounds that are beautifully kept, as they must have been when the ancient city of Palenque flourished.

People lived in this area as early as 300 BC, leaving behind pottery as evidence. But it was in the Mayan Classic Period (300-900 AD) that Palenque became an important ceremonial center. It peaked around 600 to 700 AD, when most of the temples of Palenque were built by King Pakal and his son Chan-Bahlum.

Known to the Mayans as Lakam Ha, "Big Water," Palenque was built in a supremely dramatic location, surrounded by mountains, rushing waterfalls, and dense forest. Unlike most other Mayan cities, Palenque enjoyed an abundance of water, which was controlled by means of an elaborate aqueduct system.

After years of rumors of a lost city in the jungle, the ruins were first visited in 1773 by the brother of the canon of the cathedral in San Cristobal de las Casas. In 1786, the Spanish monarchy ordered that the site be thoroughly searched for gold and treasures. This was done with the help of locals with pickaxes, and resulted in significant damage to the Palace.

When John Stephens first visited the site in the 1840s, the ruins were mostly still buried under centuries of accumulated earth and a thick canopy of jungle.

The main temples have been cleared, but the dense jungle still surrounds the site and covers unexcavated temples, which can be easily spotted beneath the foliage. It is estimated that less than 35.
Palenque is known for having begun what has been termed the ¨Cult of Personality¨ for its glorification of specific rulers that is unique in the ancient Mayan world. It has been asserted by many people that study the history of Palenque that many of the friezes and much of the writing indicates the rulers were involved in a propaganda campaign. This may have been due to the fact that Pacal, a famous king of Palenque, had a somewhat tenuous right to the throne. The story of his coming to kingship shows that he would never have ascended the throne without the help of two famous women in the royal family who played a unique role in Mayan history.
The Oval Palace Tablet which was found in the Governor's Palace shows Pacal taking the jaguar throne. As his mother hands him the crown the destiny of the Maya of this rainforest region is forever changed. Thus Pacal ascended the throne under his mother´s authority and began his reign by commissioning friezes and works that appear to be rewriting history, and even changing Mayan mythology in order to usher in his unorthodox ascension to the throne.

Pacal must have had savvy and wisdom as well as military prowess, for his reign as a king is one of the longest in world history. The Tomb of Pacal (the first sarcophagus discovered in the Mayan world), located deep withn the Temple of Inscriptions, contains one of the most intricate, massive and famous pieces of art left for us by the ancient Maya, There are many major temples and pyramids to explore. Numerous wonderful examples of Maya art and history are carved into the buildings facades, some of them the most famous of all depictions from the ancient Mayan world. In some places you will see the color coats of ancient times in their rich arrays of blues and reds.

Palenque raises many questions as to the origin of the symbology there. With symbols and friezes such as these, the concept of influences from the Far East seems plausible.Palenque also has an impressive museum. The collection of sculptured art, busts, jade jewelry, and other relics of the Maya give us a look into their ancient world. The amazingly well-preserved and intricately decorated clay incense burners alone are well worth the visit.

The impressive pyramid on the right of the site entrance is the Temple of the Inscriptions, named for the hieroglyphics found inside. These hieroglyphic panels described the family tree of King Pakal, and are now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

In 1952, the tomb of King Pakal was discovered deep within the temple. The crypt is unfortunately closed to the public, and much of the tomb has also been moved to Mexico City.

The crypt was accessed by a descending stone staircase, the entrance of which had been carefully hidden by the builders. The Temple of the Inscriptions seems to be the only temple in Mexico built specifically as a tomb. The archaeologist who made the important discovery, Alberto Ruz Lhuller, is buried opposite the temple.

To the right of the Temple of the Inscriptions is Temple 13, in which archaeologists recently discovered the richly supplied burial of another important person, accompanied by an adult female and an adolescent. Some of the artifacts found here are displayed in the site museum.

From here, the main pathway leads next to the impressive Palace, which has a unique tower that almost looks Chinese. Along the east edge of Palace is the most visible of the many aqueduct channels that run throughout the site. It is elaborately vaulted and 2.5 meters in height.

A pathway between the Palace and the Temple of the Inscriptions leads to another important group of monuments: the Temple of the Sun, the Temple of the Foliated Cross, the Temple of the Cross, and Temple 14.

This group of temples, now in various stages of reconstruction, was built by Pakal's son, Chan-Bahlum, who is usually depicted with six toes. Chan-Bahlum's plaster mask was found in Temple 14 next to the Temple of the Sun, and archaeologists are hoping to find his tomb in the Temple of the Sun.

Left from the Palace is the North Group, also undergoing reconstruction. This includes a Ball Court, the Temple of the Count, and several tombs that were full of offerings. Inscriptions found in this group give the lineages of at least 12 k

MITLA

Mitla was the second most important ceremonial center after Monte Alban. The name Mitla or Mictlan is of Nahuatl origin and means "Place of the Dead" or "Inframundo". In Zapotec it is called "Lyobaa", which means "Burial Place", and in Mexico it became known as Mictlan, "Place of the Dead" which is shortened in Spanish to Mitla.

The archaeological site and town itself are Zapotec. Mitla was inhabited in the Classic Period (100-650 DC), with its greatest growth and height in the Post Classic period (750-1521 DC).

The most characteristic architecture in Mitla is the group of the columns, where we find the Great House of Pezelao, generally considered to be the most beautiful archaeological site in the Americas.

The group contains two squares. The northern one is bordered by platforms on all four side. The main building is in the northern part. In the central patio there are vestiges of an altar. Its is made of talud, formed by two bands raised over the base, the panel and the cornice.
The great Hall of Columns is rectangular. You pass through this hallway to enter the main palace which is behind a narrow door. Leaving this passageway we find the decorated patio, which provides access to each of the four salons. Each is decorated by three panels with ornate mosaics of carved stone which forms different geometric designs in each band.

The panels contain thousands of polished stones, which are cut to fit without mortar. The most beautiful tombs are located in the northern and eastern buildings, where the Zapotec priests and kings were buried. In the first, in front of the stairs, is the entrance to a cruciform tomb, with antechamber. The ceiling has large single stone dinteles and the walls are decorated with ornate mosaic panels. The eastern is characterized by a monolithic stone column that supports the ceiling.

MONTE ALBAN

Monte Alban was the ancient capital of the Zapotecs and one of the first cities in Mesoamerica. During it's epoch, it was one of the most populated. It was founded approximately 500 years BC and flourished until 750 AD. Located in the central valley of Oaxaca, Monte Alban exercised political, economic, and ideological control over the other communities and surrounding mountains. Its principal constructions include the Great Plaza, the Ball Court, System II, The Danzantes (Dancers), Building J, Central Building G.H., the Palace, the southern platform, System 7 Deer and Tomb Number 7 of the Great Plaza.

The Ball Court is located to the left of the entrance to the Great Plaza, and has the defining characteristics of ball courts in this region. This court is marked by two structures at the sides of the rectangular base, with slanting walls. A sculpture representing a grasshopper covers most of the western side. The platform located on the western side contains a stair case flanked by two alfardas that end in talud, with two stelae in the largest part; there are two small niches contained there.
Monte Alban went through three more stages which all show evidence of a different culture. This means that through these stages different population sources entered the city leaving archeological evidence through their drawings and different engineering practices used in their buildings. Monte Alban's last occupants, the Zapotec were forced out, probably due to the aggressions of the Aztec. The city was no longer a force in political or social progression. It was then abandoned, but remained a religious and burial site until A.D. 1521.Illustrations of warfare can be illustrated by the Danzantes (dancers) which were carved into large stones. These figures symbolized slain enemy rulers and leaders who had been captured and mutilated by the citizens of Monte Alban. This ceremony was enacted to provide an offering to the gods so their crops would be plentiful.

During the Post Classic Period, about 2500-5500 people occupied this region. Most of the inhabitants did not live near the top of the hill, choosing instead to live closer to the base, but still inside of the protective barrier surrounding the city. The city was famous for its military strength, which supported itself economically, but soon agriculture bloomed and enveloped the community. This rise in agriculture led to a rise in population and may have been a reason for the decline of this massive powerhouse. Resources became scarce and peoples were forced to move on in order to survive. Another possible reason for its decline may have been corrupt administrators who destroyed the economic system causing dispersal of much of the population.

Monte Alban is famous for its attempt at basic calendars. The first was based on the agricultural season and the second based on the solar year. Both calendars had names for the months and days of their respective years and together they produced a time period of 52 years, the basic Mesoamerican cycle.

Tezcatlipoca

CACAHUAMILPA CAVES

The Cacahuamilpa Caves National Park or Grutas de Cacahuamilpa as is named in Spanish; comes from the etymologic Cacahuamilpa word of the Náhuatl language, which means peanuts sowing. It is situated inside of the physiographic province of Sierra Madre South, in the north zone of Guerrero State, Mexico.

Cacahuamilpa caves are considered one of the most amazing caves in the World, cover 1,600 hectares and 1,380 metres long holding inside endless strange figures such as faces, facial expressions, animals, places, etc. which are cause of admiration and wonder among the visitants, particularly of those scientists who are dedicated to the Speleology. The caves are distributed in 80 both artificially and naturally full illuminated rooms, at least; also, their heights ranged between 30 metres to 70 metres.

The formations of these natural caves belong to the ancient traces of the sea made by the sediments that the water dragged. This is the principal reason why these rocks are so soluble allowing the pass of water, and through its route creates fissures at the beginning, to form later subterranean rivers in which bed deviation form the caves.

At this location there is a warm semi-dry climate; however, during the rains the forest becomes lush, while during the dry season the landscape turns a wood with no leafs. The low latitude-rainforest vegetation include many trees such as Bursera bipinnata, Bursera copallifera and Bursera jorullensis; as same as Crescentia Cujete and Crescentia Alata, used in the cooking utensils production.

Furthermore, among some of the distinguished animals, there are the cacomistles, badgers, racoons, rattlesnakes, iguanas and green iguanas, new world vultures, pumas, small tigers, rabbits, armadillos, otters, golden eagles, lynxes, etc. The National Park has also Limestone Mountains passed by subterranean rivers of San Jerónimo and Chontalcoatlán, both converging in the Amacuzac River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean.

This spectacular natural formation are open to the public with daily visits starting at 10 am, the tour is 2 hours walking along 2 kilometres.

HISTORY
This site is full of histories and legends. The legend tells that in the past times, long time ago, non pre-Hispanic tribe dared to enter. These tribes used to call this place Salachi, and in their fantasies they assured that these formations were the incarnations of bad spirits who denied the entrance to any foreigner.

According to this legend, there was a tribe that lived near to Tetipac village, and when they decided to overthrew their leader, he was the one who found these enormous caves close to the mountains, from where the water abundantly flowed. When he got inside, he was astonished in front of the spectacular view; and started to think about some way to recover his throne. Apparently, he had an unknown daughter by the tribe, so the leader prepared her to present as a deity. So then, he visited an ancient of the tribe and told him about the deity apparition.


Inside view of the Cacahuamilpa Caves
Lastly, this old man return to the tribe and told them about what he had seen in the Salachi caverns. Followed by the oldest men, they all visited the cave, where the daughter deity was over a wonderful formation in the middle of the place. When she saw all those old men coming in, the said loud: “I will end with your legion using these hell fires if you all do not put back in the throne your leader”. It was in this way that the leader recovered his throne, and the entire tribe kept for long time worshipping this secret and mysterious deity’s sanctuary.

So that and according to the studies, these places belong to the Chontales tribes, who were used to using them as special places dedicated to their god’s ceremonies and worships. These caves were discovered by Manuel Saenz de la Peña in 1834; but, on January 20th, 1936 they were declared as National Park by Lázaro Cárdenas Del Río, president of Mexico in that year, with many more other attractions near.

TETZCOTZINCO

The Hill of Tetzcotzinco is an important Aztec site that is surrounded by agricultural terraces and is located east of Tetzcoco at the base of the Mt. Tlaloc foothills. It is associated with life giving rain rites and agriculture. Although there has been little archaeological excavation at this site, survey plans, surface explorations, and aerial views demonstrate its layout. The architecture of this site combines landscape, sculpture and ritual. Tetzcotzinco is a reenactment of the symbolic landscape of Mt. Tlaloc and has been a place of worship since the time of the Chichimecs . After the famine of 1454 C.E., the tlatoani of Tetzcoco, Netzahuacoyotl, decided to build a new ceremonial center, refurbish, and reconstruct the Hill of Tetzcotzinco. This became the site where Netzahuacoyotl erected his personal palaces. It had rock-cut baths known popularly as the “baths of Nezahualcoyotl” and canals, aqueducts, gardens, and over 300 rooms. Tetzcotzinco had a system of farming terraces extending northward from the hill, forming a huge natural amphitheater, and the hill and the neighboring towns that still exist today, were supplied with water by aqueducts from springs high on Mt. Tlaloc. The hydraulic works of Tetzcotzinco are considered one of the major engineering accomplishments of the Pre-Columbian times . The aqueduct transported water over a distance of eight kilometers from springs at the slopes of Mt. Tlaloc through the Metecatl Hill to irrigate an extensive area of gardens, fountains, and baths carved in the rock of the Tetzcotzinco hill under the auspices of the great poet, engineer, and king Netzahuacoyotl.

Most of the monuments of Tetzcotzinco were destroyed by the Spanish in 1539 C.E.; however, many pictorial manuscripts, texts, and related sculpture and architecture provide useful information to reconstruct what remains of the site. The archaeologist Richard Townsend mapped the area in 1979 and revealed that the upper hill was cosmologically designed. Approximately 55 meters below the summit, the ritual zone is demarcated by a walkway cut around the hill. On this path there are four baths or shallow basins oriented to the four cardinal directions. Their receptacles were manifestations of Chalchiuhtlicue’s aquatic domain and were used for ritual purification. Their water was supplied by an aqueduct built in a circular path that served processional circumambulation and divided the upper sacred zone from the profane space below .
Civic Monuments
Among the civil architectural features that can still be seen at Tetzcotzinco are: the Reservoir System H and the Fountain , a group of water deposits built on the northern skirts of Metecatl Hill with the intention to control the speed and flow of the water that descended to Tetzcotzinco; the Monolithic Room, a pool at the entrance of the hydraulic system that had a temple on top dedicated either to the wind god Ehecatl or to the Sun (Tonatiuh) the aqueduct subsystem circuit with a series of channels every 50 meters to irrigate the gardens, the farming terraces and give services to the royal compounds the so-called King’s and Queen’s baths , a collection of rock-cut monolithic deposits of water with a magnificent view to the former gardens in the slopes of the hill and the Valley of Mexico; and finally, the Palace attributed to Netzahuacoyotl that is not yet excavated.
Shrines
The Tetzcotzinco Hill has a sequence of shrine stations along an east-west axis that follows the natural ridge of the hill. The alignment indicates the path of the sun, leading scholars to believe that Tetzcotzinco had calendrical and astronomical functions determined by the solstice and equinox . In Tetzcotzinco’s summit there are remains of a temple built over a cave . There is also a goggle-eyed mask of

Tlaloc engraved on a bedrock boulder
There is an important shrine that is a cave below the circumscribing path next to the King’s bath and near a system of lower terraces where Netzahualcoyotl’s palace and botanical gardens stood . Caves are associated with the heart of the earth, mountains, and wombs related to fertility. The cave above is related to the ancestors and lineage of Netzahuacoyotl, recalling the genesis theme that people first emerged from the womb of the earth through caves (Chicomoztoc). By placing his compounds next to the cave, Netzahuacoyotl legitimized himself and his legacy.
Another shrine is located high on the western axis, it has two very damaged carved effigies on the living rock; they are of female divinities connected to the cycle of maize. The divinities are associated with the festivals of Huey Tozoztli, Huey Tecuihuitl and Ochpaniztli. Huey Tozoztli was dedicated to Chicomecoatl, the goddess of dried seed corn, and Cinteotl, the conflated male and female deity of the young corn, and was celebrated at the height of the dry season when corn was consecrated for the coming planting. Huey Tecuihuitl was dedicated to Xilonen, goddess of the mature corn, and it occurred during the middle of the rain season. Ochpaniztli was dedicated to the male and female earth and maize deities, and it was celebrated during the harvest to mark the start of the dry season.
The last shrines are Netzalhualcoyotl’s personal commemorative monuments located on the eastern slope of the hill below the summit. There was an ample assembly plaza that was constructed facing an exposed rock-face where the sculptures were carved. The monuments have been destroyed, but from the writings of chronicler Fernando de Alva Ixtlixochitl, it is known that the first monument recorded the deeds of Netzahuacoyotl as a hero and founder of the Tetzcocan nation. Adjacent to this sculpture there was a seated coyote of stone with Netzahualcoyotl’s hieroglyphic name, which means fasting coyote. The monuments faced east toward the rising sun, associating Netzahuacoyotl with the daily appearance of light, heat, and the renewal of seasons.

TEPOZTLAN tepozteco piramyd

Tepoztlan whose name means “place of copper” is a town located south of Mexico City, near the city of Cuernavaca. Other meanings or names associated with the site are “place of split stones” or “place of axes”. In some records, the town is named Tepozteco because the spectacular and beautiful sierra with the same name surrounds it . The city was founded in the Late Post-Classic period by the Tlahuica people. Its pyramidal complex was dedicated to Tepoztecatl also known as Ome Tochtli, the pulque (alcoholic beverage from the maguey plant) god. He was a legendary cultural hero that after being a priest for the gods of pulque was deified. The intoxication with pulque was an important religious practice of alteration of consciousness with the purpose of communication with the gods. According to the Mendoza Codex, Tepoztlan was conquered by Motecuhzoma II Ihuilcamina, becoming tributary to Tenochtitlán.
The Pyramid-Temple of Tepoztlan
The pyramid was built on top of a mountain in the spectacular Tepoztlan sierra. The area where the pyramid was erected is rocky in nature and was artificially molded and cut. A 9.50 meter high platform was constructed there. The platform is accessed from the east side through stairs situated in the posterior part of the temple; there are other stairs in the southeast section of the edifice. On the back section of the platform, there is a raised base composed of two inclined sections separated by a passageway that has stairs on its west side leading to the temple , The temple consists of two rooms that are bordered by two meter wide walls. The first room or vestibule is formed by the extension of two side walls and two pillars , The room is six by 5.20 meters and has lateral benches and a depression at the center similar to some of the temples in Malinalco. Archaeological remains suggest that the roof was made of tezontle; door jambs and benches were made of stone. The benches have small cornices whose ornamentation is believed to represent the twenty day signs.

In the lower part of the pyramid there are two plaques; one has the hieroglyph of king Ahuitzotl, indicating a date of 1500 C.E. and the other has the date 10 Tochtli (rabbit) that corresponds to the last (final) years of Ahuitzotl’s reign. These plates indicate that this monument was constructed sometime between 1502 and 1520 C.E. The pyramid also consisted of 13 steps that symbolized the 13 levels of heaven.
Ome Tochtli, the pulque god and patron deity of Tepoztlan is related to the earth goddess. Festivals at the temple were carried out after the crop season. In addition, when a person died of alcohol intoxication, the town members would have a celebration in honor of the deceased individual. At present, on December 8 every year coinciding with the Christian festival of the Nativity, there is a festival dedicated to the cultural hero Tepoztecatl, and people still climb the mountain to place offerings to him. Tepoztlan is a place loaded with ancient traditions, legends and magic practices of Pre-Columbian affiliation.

ACATITLAN

St. Cecilia Acatitlan, meaning between the canes, is located north of modern day Mexico City. This Chichimec city was occupied later by the Mexica-Aztecs and was transformed into one of the numerous religious enclaves that surrounded the Tetzcoco lake region. Sta. Cecilia Acatitlan has a double pyramid-temple that faces a cobbled stone plaza that may have been used as a public arena during ceremonies in the plaza, in front of the pyramid, there is a small church built in late 16 century with stones taken from the Pre-Columbian site.
The Pyramid
The pyramidal platform is composed of a double stairway that faces west and is separated by a balustrade (alfarda) that is twice as wide as the other two balustrades that form the extremes of the platform . On top of it there are two temples. The North Temple was dedicated to Tlaloc . A sculpture of Chac Mool (messenger of the gods who carry the human sacrifice offerings) used to accompany Tlaloc inside his temple, but because the deterioration of this North Temple, the Chac Mool is placed in the contiguous temple. The South Temple was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. The roof of this temple was made out of inclining tableros (panels) that were decorated with naillike stones . The doorway of the shrine has a wood lintel. Next to the figure of the Chac Mool, there can be seen a techcatl (sacrificial stone) and a brazier .
The dual pyramid-temple of Santa Cecilia Acatitlan, with some variants, follows the traditional Aztec pattern of twin pyramids dedicated to Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli.

TENAYUCAN

Tenayuca, meaning the Place Where Walls Are Made, was a Chichimec city founded in 1224 C.E., and was located northwest of Mexico City. Tenayuca was an enclosed and fortified city founded by king Xolotl, and was the capital of the Chichimecs until a later king, Quinatzin moved to Tetzcoco. It had six major construction phases from 1224 to 1507 C.E. Aztec influence was visible by 1325 C.E. Although its temple was built during the Post-Classic period, archaeological materials found inside the temple indicate that Tenayuca was inhabited long before. The early phases of Tenayuca’s pyramid construction began after the fall of Tula (1200 C.E.) and before the founding of Tenochtitlán. It is believed by some scholars that the Great Temple of Tenochtitlán was modeled after the great temple of Tenayuca. The double-pyramid was four-tiered, faced the plaza, and was ornamented with rows of serpents surrounding all three sides of the base, forming a coatepantli (serpent wall) inspired by the one in Tula. As the snakes in the coatepantli have a spiral-like crest in their heads, they are identified as xiuhcoatls, or fire serpents, the weapon of Huitzilopochtli. This symbol signified an association of Tenayuca with sun god cult and fire renewal. The gods Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, Mixcoatl, Itzpapalotl, Chicomecoatl, and Coatlicue were worshiped there.
The Pyramid
Tenayuca’s pyramid is composed of several superimposed layers . All layers follow the same system of construction, patterns of decoration, and layout. The earliest

structure has carved stone slabs facing a rock core. There after, the current pyramid would be used as a core for the next successive layering/construction phase . Slabs were coated with cement made from sand, lime, and crushed tezontle. Color would then be applied. Carved stone serpent heads, year glyphs, shields, knives, and other symbols were used for decoration. The low platform that projected from the pyramid was ornamented with bones and sculpted crossed skulls.
Wall of Serpents
Known as the coatepantli, the Wall of Serpents, covers all three sides of the pyramid’s platform . It was found that there are 43, 50 and 45 serpent heads on the north, east and south walls . Greenish blue paint is visible on the snakes’ bodies of the south side and half of the bodies on the east side. Their bodies’ scales were outlined in black. The north wall’s serpents were garnished in black with white ovals. Snakes’ rattles were detailed by carving three stepped planes at the tip of their tails. It is believed that the color schemes used on the bodies were related to the symbolism of sun worship.
On the north and south ground level of the pyramid, coiled serpents were positioned. The heads of stone are ornamented with a spiral crest that identifies the fire serpent as a xiuhcoatl, which is associated with fire renewal, sun worship, and the 52-year calendar . The stone heads were decorated with bulging dots that are believed to symbolize stars.
The rocky stairway has visible engravings from the last structural addition. A year glyph, a linked rectangle and triangle, banners, concentric circles, a knife, turquoise, chimallis or shields, and precious stones are still visible. The carvings do not appear to have a systematic order.
Tomb-Altar
Located in front of the pyramid, there is a combined tomb and altar with colored paintings of crossbones and skulls inside. The outside has carved stone reliefs illustrating skulls

IZTAC OCTLI

Pulque, or octli, is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice sap of the maguey plant, and is a traditional native beverage of Mexico.[1] The drink’s history extends far back into the Mesoamerican period, when it was considered sacred, and its use was limited to certain classes of people. it is made by fermenting the sap of certain types of maguey (agave) plants. In contrast, mescal is made from the cooked heart of certain agave plants, and tequila, a variety of mescal, is made all or mostly from the blue agave. There are about six varieties of maguey that are best used for the production of pulque.[1][2] The name “pulque” is derived from Nahuatl. The original name of the drink was “iztac octli,” the term pulque was probably mistakenly derived by the Spanish from the “octli poliuhqui” which meant spoiled pulque.
THE MAGUEY PLANT
The maguey plant, also called a “century plant” in English is native to Mexico. It grows best in the cold, dry climates of the rocky central highlands to the north and east of Mexico City, especially in Hidalgo and Tlaxcala states. Maguey has been cultivated at least since 200 C.E. in Tula, Tulancingo and Teotihuacan, and wild plants have been exploited for far longer. The plant historically has had a number of uses. Fibers can be extracted from the thick leaves to make rope or fabric, its thorns can be used as needles or punches and the membrane covering the leaves can be used as paper or for cooking.The name “maguey” was given by the Spanish, who picked it up from the Taíno. This is still its common name in Spanish, with “agave” being its technical name. The ancient Nahuatl name was “metl.
It is not known who invented pulque; its origins go back at least 1,000 years. Various stories and myths have developed as to its origins. Most involve Mayahuel, the goddess of the maguey. It was thought that the aguamiel collecting in the center of the plant was her blood. Other deities, such as the Centzon Totochtin (400 rabbits) are associated with it, by representing the drink's effects, and are the children of Mayahuel. Another version involving Mayahuel has her as a mortal woman who discovered how to collect aguamiel but someone named Pantecalt discovered how to make pulque.

Another story states that pulque was discovered by the Tlacuache (opossum), who used his human-like hands to dig into the maguey and extract the naturally fermenting juice. He became the first drunk. Tlacuache was thought to set the course of rivers. The rivers he set were generally straight except when he was drunk. Then they follow Tlacuache’s meandering path from cantina to cantina. Another story traces the discovery of aguamiel to the Toltec Empire, when a noble named Papantzin was trying to get the emperor to marry his daughter Xochitl. He sent her to the capital with an offering of aguamiel. The emperor and princess wed, and their son was named Meconetzin (maguey boy).[10]In other versions of the story, Xochitl is credited with discovering pulque .
The maguey was one of the most sacred and important plants in ancient Mexico, having a privileged place in mythology, religious rituals and the Mesoamerican economy. During the this period, pulque appears in a number of graphic representations. Pulque first appears on stone carvings about 200 C.E. The first major work involving pulque is a large mural called the “Pulque Drinkers,” which was unearthed in 1968 during excavations at the pyramid of Cholula, Puebla. The most likely means of the discovery of aguamiel and fermented pulque was from the observation of rodents who gnaw and scratch at the plant to drink the seeping sap. Fermentation of the aguamiel can take place within the plant itself.[11]

For the Indians of the central highlands of Mexico, the imbibing of pulque was done only by certain people, under certain conditions. It was a ritual drink, consumed during certain festivals, such as that of the goddess Mayahuel, and the god Mixcoatl. It was drunk by priests and sacrificial victims, to increase the priests’ enthusiasm and to ease the suffering of the victim.[2] There are many references in Aztec codices, such as the Borbonicus Codex) of pulque’s use by nobility and priesthood to celebrate victories. Among commoners, it was permitted only to the elderly and pregnant women

XOCHICALCO

Xochicalco, which means "In the place of the House of the Flowers", lies atop an array of low-lying hills, the main ones of which are known as La Bodega, La Malinche, and Xochicalco. The site was laid out and built in accordance with a carefully contrived urbanization plan. The summit of Xochicalco hill was graded so as to facilitate the construction of the main buildings, and the slopes, too, were altered to provide room for homes and terraces to prevent easy access to the site. Xochicalco reached its height as one of the great cities of Meso-America in Late Classic times (AD 650-900). Most of the monumental architecture now visible was constructed during that period. I think this could be considered one of the most beautiful cities in the world at the time it was constructed. It is a very well thought out design of terraces, streets, plazas and buildings. And located on the top of the mountain there is a fantastic view in every direction.

The rise and development of Xochicalco is best understood in its relation to Teotihuacan, the dominant urban center in Meso-America throughout the Classic Period. According to some researchers, Xochicalco must have risen following the abandonment of that center of the central plateau in order to fill in the economic and political power vacuum created by the decline.
The distribution of Xochicalco followed a hierarchical order; on the peak, surrounded by barriers, is the Acropolis, a residential area for the leaders and their families. At the Main Plaza is the Pyramid of the Feathered Snakes and other buildings, where the political, economic and religious goals of the city were decided. On a lower terrace is the Great Pyramid, where religious ceremonies took place.
One of the most outstanding constructions of Xochicalco, is the the temple of Quetzalcoatl, widely recognized by his refined high - relieves wich represent different symbols and passages from this God, symbolized by the effigy of the feathered snake.
The Pyramid of the Feathered Snakes has beautiful sculpted relieves, representing eight huge feathered snakes embellished with great headpieces, snails, important leaders and the new fire symbol. On the panel there is a series of persons holding a bag that represents the symbol for speech and a disc divided into four, possibly representing a solar eclipse, phenomenon visible from Xochicalco in 743 A.D.
In 1963 remains were found of two substructures built previously to those visible today, as well as of ferings and burials. The main motif depicts Quetzalcoatl as the plumed serpent. It is to be noted that the wooden beams of the stairway look like the ventral scales of a snake's body. The rest of the decorative elements are related to personages, cylindrical signs, and places. On the upper part there are, between the undulations of the serpent, several human figures, some with the slash denoting the spoken word. The may represent priests or great chieftains. In combination with these dignitaries can be seen the sign for fire together with a date (symbolized by one bar and four dots). On the sides, above this first body, there are reproductions of priests with their calendar names. On the upper part of the structure are found human figures identifiable as warriors because some wear helmets and feathered headdress and hold atlatl, that is, lance throwers. These figures are shown with place symbols and their names. On the left of the staircase there is a remarkable carving which shows sign 5 calli, "house", being joined with sign 11 ozomatli, "monkey", by a personage standing behind and pulling "monkey" with a rope. This has been interpreted as a calendar correction or adjustment. Thus the most common idea as to the function of the structure is that it commemorates a meeting of priests and great chieftains for the adjustment of the Meso-American calendar, although the monument may have other meanings..
Archaeologists state there was an astronomer recording the sunrise every day, for many generations, in order to observe the sun’s dynamic, thus establishing climate patterns according to the stars. It was the venue for a gathering of priests from all Mesoamerican cultures that made an adjustment to the calendar. This event was recorded on the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl.

The plaza faces the sunset, marking equinoxes and solstices because the inhabitants of Xochicalco depended on agriculture. This issue led them to develop a very precise system for establishing the cycles of the sun, moon, planets and stars in a ritual revolving around the agricultural calendar. Every March 21 at sunrise, the sun shines exactly through the middle of a sculpture, aligning with an inscription and the central monument.
Estructura A. Around a court yard at its top there are two halls and the Temple of the Steles, so called because of three steles found in a stone encasement beneath the flooring. These steles are now on display at the National Museum of Anthropology. They are carved in low relief and exhibit remains of red or vermilion paint. They narrate various events related to Quetzalcoatl such as the Venusian cycle, wherein Venus is transformed into Quetzalcoatl, who represents this god as the lord of time with respect to his invention of the calendar, as well as to his creation of the Fifth Sun in Teotihuacan and his discovery of maize (corn).
The Chamber of Offerings. This is a small building next to Structure A. It contains a single room or chamber in which an offering consisting of two smooth stone yokes related to the cultures of central Veracruz were found together with and anthropomorthic ax and a stone tablet with the hieroglyphs 5 or 10 acatl and 4 tochtli. These findings, as well as the Mayan and Zapotec glyphs uncovered in the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent, have been interpreted as evidence of close contacts between Xochicalco and distant areas. Ball Court. This is one of the two buildings of this type excavated in the zone (the other, less elaborated, is located on the north side of the Ceremonial Plaza). Because of the size, shape, layout, and other features, it has been compared with several others in Mayan area

The cave is an astronomical observatory, used to recognize the beginning of the agricultural cycle. Originally, it was covered in stucco painted in black, yellow and red. Its observation chimney precisely projects sunlight and during the night, it allows a perfect view of the stars. Two of the many natural underground caves at Xochicalco, show clear evidence of architectural modification, including the perforation of an artificial hole or "chimney" from the cave to the ground above. These vertical shafts would have enabled very precise observations and measurements of solar and possibly planetary events. For instance, the vertical north side of the 5-meter-long "chimney" down into one cave would have resulted in a precisely vertical beam of sunlight on the day of the zenith. The south side of the chimney slopes at an angle of 4o23'. Is it simply a coincidence that this is the exact angle for light to be parallel to this side on June 21, the day of the Summer solstice? Archeo-astronomers think not!

The dimensions and geometry of this chimney ensure that some light enters the cave every day from April 30 (15 days before the first of the two annual zeniths) to August 12 (15 days after the second). Put another way, the cave receives light every day from precisely 52 days before the solstice to 52 days after it. The number 52 was of immense significance in the pre-Columbian calendar, since it took exactly 52 (solar) years for both the solar calendar and the ritual calendar (of 260 days each) to return simultaneously to the equivalent of 0-0.

Another fascinating finding, first published in México Desconocido, is that from the "Acropolis" of the site, on zenith days, the sun rises exactly behind Popocatépetl volcano on the eastern horizon. The effect does not occur even one day before or after the zenith. Given the polluted skies over Mexico City, it is difficult to guarantee witnessing this effect nowadays!

The site of Xochicalco is living proof of one of the most important scientific summits ever held in the history of the Americas. The congress of astronomers from all over the zone held to agree the calendric correction was a landmark event in the history of science worldwide.

Xochicalco is a fascinating place to wander around. Let your imagination wander. Imagine the astronomers and their cohorts engaged in deep philosophical discussions.

“XOCOLATL AZTECA”

The Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl, of the Aztecs, was one of the first deities of peace. Within Quetzalcoatl’s mythology is the myth that he flew the sacred cacao tree from paradise to give to the humans. Not only was Quetzalcoatl a peaceful god, he was also the god of wisdom and power. The Aztecs believed that chocolate was a food imbued with the knowledge of Quetzalcoatl. Archaeologists have found evidence that the Mayans used cacao in celebrations. It is thought that as early as 1,500 B.C. these early people had discovered the health benefits of chocolate.the word comes from Nahuatl, "xocolatl" (pronounced [ ʃoˈkolaːtɬ]) made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter,[2] and "atl" meaning water or drink

Back then it was a bitter beverage revered for its nourishing qualities and ability to boost energy and stamina; treat stomach and intestinal complaints and infections, fever and coughs.

They mixed it with fermented and roasted cocoa paste, water, chilli peppers, cornmeal and other ingredients - blended into a spicy, frothy and sugar-free drink. It was regarded as a ‘divine drink’Drinking chocolate was an important part of Maya and Aztec life.
Many people in Classic Period Maya society could drink chocolate at least on occasion, although it was a particularly favored beverage for royalty. But in Aztec society, primarily rulers, priests, decorated soldiers, and honored merchants could partake of this sacred brew.

Chocolate also played a special role in both Maya and Aztec royal and religious events. Priests presented cacao seeds as offerings to the gods and served chocolate drinks during sacred ceremonies.The cacao tree was looked upon by the Aztecs as a gift from their peaceful god Quetzalcoatl (“feathered serpent”). The Aztecs would ingest cacao together with Psilocybe (enthogenic mushrooms), in religious rituals, a practice still conducted today by numerous tribes throughout the region. The Yucatec Maya venerate a black god named Ek Chuah as their cacao deity and local cacao farmers hold a festival in the god’s honor during the month of Muan in the old Mayan calendar.

Cacao’s psychoactive material manifest in the cacao beans, the cocoa shells, in the cocoa butter and in the fresh fruit pulp. Inebriating effects described by Aztec sources may likely be due to the cacao additives, or to a synergism with added substances such as psilocybe mushrooms. Folk lore has described the traditionally prepared Indian drink to be very stimulating and euphoric. These effects, however, cannot be expected from modern day’s commercially produced cocoa.

An Aztec text from the early colonial period provides a precise description of the tree and of the drink, which it noted to be inebriating. The Aztecs described the cacao tree as being simply round in shape with broad branches. They portray the tree’s fruits to appear much like dried ears of maize, thus they often referred to the fruit as “cacao ears.” Ranging in color from reddish brown to whitish brown to bluish brown, the heart of the fruit looks much like an ear of corn.

When the ceremonial drink made from cacao is imbibed in moderation, especially from those ears which are green and tender, one benefits by feeling happy, refreshed, comforted and stronger than before. The Cacao Tree was worshipped by the Mayan civilisation of Central America and Southern Mexico, who believed it to be of divine origin, Cacao is actually a Mayan word meaning "God Food" hence the tree's modern generic Latin name 'Theobrama Cacao' meaning ‘Food of the Gods’. Cacao was corrupted into the more familiar 'Cocoa' by the early European explorers. The Maya brewed a spicy, bitter sweet drink by roasting and pounding the seeds of the Cacao tree (cocoa beans) with maize and Capsicum (Chilli) peppers and letting the mixture ferment. This drink was reserved for use in ceremonies as well as for drinking by the wealthy and religious elite, they also ate a Cacao porridge.

The Aztecs of central Mexico also prized the beans, but because the Aztec's lived further north in more arid regions at higher altitudes, where the climate was not suitable for cultivation of the tree, they had to acquire the beans through trade and/or the spoils of war. The Aztecs prized the beans so highly they used them as currency - 100 beans bought a Turkey or a slave - and tribute or Taxes were paid in cocoa beans to Aztec emperors. The Aztecs, like the Mayans, also enjoyed Cacao as a beverage fermented from the raw beans, which again featured prominently in ritual and as a luxury available only to the very wealthy. The Aztecs called this drink Xocolatl, the Spanish conquistadors found this almost impossible to pronounce and so corrupted it to the easier 'Chocolat', the English further changed this to Chocolate.

The Aztec's regarded chocolate as an aphrodisiac and their Emperor, Montezuma reputedly drank it fifty times a day from a golden goblet and is quoted as saying of Xocolatl: "The divine drink, which builds up resistance and fights fatigue. A cup of this precious drink permits a man to walk for a whole day without food"

In fact, the Aztec's prized Xocolatl well above Gold and Silver so much so, that when Montezuma was defeated by Cortez in 1519 and the victorious 'conquistadors' searched his palace for the Aztec treasury expecting to find Gold & Silver, all they found were huge quantities of cocoa beans. The Aztec Treasury consisted, not of precious metals, but Cocoa Beans.